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Haiti:the Magic Land
HAITI: THE MAGIC LAND
By Alejandro Guevara Onofre
INTRODUCTION
In 1492 Christopher Columbus wrote about Haiti: "The most beautiful in the world". Certainly, Haiti is a wonderful country in the Caribbean. I think that has a special beauty, with a geography and traditional culture that is altogether different from all the other countries in Latin America.
Now, this composition is a historical information about Haiti, the first black republic in the modern history and one of the poorest nations on Earth. Each part provides details on history, economy, biographies, sport, rewards,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], diplomatic relations, culture and other important aspects of Haiti. The people that don’t know Haiti very much think that Haiti is only one of the world’s poorest countries, but the Island is known for its traditional culture, hospitality, superstitions, history. Furthermore, Haiti is the home to National Park History, one of the antique wonders of the world, and well-known women such as Edwidge Danticat and Micha?lle Jean were born there.
Since then, the dictatorships have broke Haitian society, economic, nature and sport. Since 1950, two million Haitian people emigrated to the United States and additional countries. Haitian-American arrived from Haiti with naught more than their raiment. If we liken the Haiti of today apt Haiti of thirty years antecedent, we penetrate a change: a new multiparty democracy. Today, a extensive portion of the Third World and more than a billion people are under dictatorships.
Eventually, I would like to finish my introduction with a message by Albert Mangones: "Haiti is distinctive in history, going instantly from servitude to nationhood".
CHRONOLOGY:
1492: Columbus discovered Haiti in the 15th Century.
1520-1697: Haiti is a Spanish territory. In the late 1500 and early 1600, African slaves flocked to Island.
1697-1790: Haiti is a French colony. After 16th Century, Haiti became the most important French colony in the Americas. Island′s backup to Europe included sugar, coffee and corn. The beauty of Haiti is recognized by the French in the mid-1700 Century, when they shrieked it "jewelry the Caribbean".
1790-1803: During the French colonization slaves suffers from maltreatment. By the late 1790, pro-independence demonstrations. An Anti-slavery campaign under Toussaint L′Ouverture began. L′Ouverture is one of the most important black leaders in the history.During this period of time,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], Haitian slaves aggression villages. Anti-French protests riots brutally inhibited. By the late 1803, under leadership of Jean Jacques Dessalines, Haiti militia defeated the French forces at the Battle of Vertieres.
1804-1806:A French colony for more than hundred years, Haiti becomes neutral, one of the most important events in the history. Jean Jacques Dessalines became the first president of new republic of Haiti, the first black republic in the modern history. Dessalines is the "Father of Modern Haiti". Haiti occupies the Western third of Hispaniola, the second-largest Island in the Caribbean.
1804-1820: Unfortunately; Haiti namely divided into two districts. Northern Haiti is occupied by Henri Christopher, who is named Emperor, meantime the north is occupied by Alexander Petion. Petion is probably the greatest Haitian politician who ever lived.
1880: Haiti has one of the richest ecosystems in the Caribbean.
1900: Haiti′s modern political has been tumultuous, marked by dictatorships
1915-1934: Haiti has not had an effective national government Invasion by United States forces. US troops sent to Haiti during civil sub-war.
1918: The Presidential Palace, one of the best national palaces in the world, is originally charted by the Haitian Georges Bassan. Bassan is inspired to White House Washington.
1926: Emily Greene Balch, a human rights activist, went to Haiti.
1928: Cator is the only Haitian ever to win olympic silver award. After, Haitian sportsman Sylvio Cator crashes the men’s long bound log in Paris. Cator was given a hero’s welcome while he returned to his nation.
1937: In the Dominican Republic, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo ordered national troops to slaughter of 20000 Haitian immigrants.
1940-1950: Haiti is one of the most popular voyage destinations in the Caribbean.
1944: Dewitt Peters, an American school-teacher, founded the Centre d’Art in Port -au-Prince Since 1944, Centre d’Art became the navel of the Haitian painting. It is now one of Haiti′s biggest passenger attractions, and every year thousands of people came to see the paintings and other work of Haitian craft.
1945: Haiti becomes the 26th membership of the United Nations in October.
1956: Haiti establishes foreign narratives with the Republic of China (Taiwan).
1956: Daniel Fignolé is President of the Provisional Council and Head of State of Haiti
1957-1971:After going because a period as a traditional physician, Francois Duvalier became 1 of Haiti’s most famous doctors. In 1957, Duvalier is elected President of the Republic of Haiti. President Duvalier announced: "My administration will assure the exercise of freedom to always Haitians". Francois Duvalier, too understood because his byname "Papa Doc", emerged as Head of State and immediately acquired nearly total power. In 1961 "Papa Doc" rewrote the National Constitution. After, he became the 1st "President for Eternity of Haiti". In the 1960s and 1970s "Papa Doc" popularizes superstitions minds to Haiti through a series of essential voodoo rites. The Duvalier fascism instituted rig reception censorship. International agencies indict administration of grave person rights abuses. His regime of dread resulted in the deaths of least 30000 Haitian. The Island is an of the maximum risky countries in the Third World.
1957-1981: Haitian First Lady Simone Ovide became one of the most dominant women in the history of Haiti. Simone, wife of the most famous dictator of Haiti, gained in influence and power through corruption and offense.
1957-1989: For many decades, Haiti does not have diplomatic relations with the USSR, People’s Republic of China, Cuba, Hungary, South Africa and East Germany.
1960: The Tonton Macoutes, the savage hidden police, initiated a "Haitian genocide" in which political prisoners were tortured and executed.
1964: Joseph Eduard Gaetjens, the idol of millions of Haitians, is arrested and slew by the Tonton Macoutes, the sinister Haitian secret police. Like John Barnes (Jamaica) and Everald "Gally" Cummings (Trinidad Tobago), he was a great footballer in the Caribbean. After,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], Gaetjens become a world symbol of the struggle against dictatorship in the Third World. He had dual Haitian and American nationality and played at 1950 World Cup for the United States. Son of Haitian mom and Belgium father, he played for many unions in the United States. The year 1950 was a very important year for Gaetjens: the United States beat England 1-0, the birthplace of the modern football.
1964: Francois Duvalier changed the national flag. Black and ruddy are the colors chosen by Duvalier. Black, which is alike to the Angolan flag, represents the descendants of the patriot Francois Toussaint L’Ouverture and is also the traditional color of the Haitian people. While, red symbolizes the country`s independence. But the original flag, accustomed since 1803, was cleared in 1986 by mandate of the new government.
1966: Haile Selassie, the Emperor of Ethiopia, arrives in Port-au-Prince. Under the mastery of Dictator Francois Duvalier, many African countries nourish official diplomatic relations with Haiti.
1967: The Comedians, a membrane by British manager Peter Glenville, inspired in the marble Haitian dictatorship by the Duvalier family.
1971: After Duvalier’s death, power passed to his son Jean Claude Duvalier, the male who became known throughout the earth as "Baby Doc". Baby Doc is as arbitrary as his dad. Haiti is ruled by iron hand. Duvalier, best known for his anticommunist political, is omnipresent. Many opposition leaders were arrested. He is accused of human rights abuses. Thousand of Haitian people fled the country. Corruption is prevalent at all levels of government. The health system is one of the worst in the Americas.
1974: The sporting system is one of the worst in the Third World, but Haiti qualified for the 1974 FIFA World Cup. Haiti beat Trinidad-Tobago in the World Cup qualifiers. Is one of the greatest sporting moment, in the chronology, comparing it to something like Sylvio Cator, who won a silver medal in long jump in the 1928 Olympics Games in Holland.
1975: In El Salvador, Miss Haiti, Gerthie David, is named first runner up at Miss Universe Pageant… transmitting live to millions by CBS. After, Gerthie David is acclaimed in Port-au-Prince as a national heroine. Miss Haiti competed with 71 other women from around the world for the title of Miss Universe, including Miss USA, Summer Barthollomew.
1980: Like Canada, West Germany South Korea and Kenya, Haiti boycott the Moscow Olympic Games in protest for Soviet invasion of Afghanistan
1980-1986: Jean-Claude Duvalier, Haiti’s longtime dictator, marital Michelle Bennett, an aristocratic madam. A tiny more than 3 months afterward, Bennett-Duvalier becomes First Lady of Haiti. Like Eva Peron (Argentina) or Jiang Qing (People’s Republic of China), she was a woman with great power. Michelle Bennett promoted her mulatto countrymen to positions of leadership in the dictatorship at his consumption of the African-Haitians.
1982: The National History Park (La Citadelle Laferriere, Sans Souci Palace and Ramiers) is appointed as a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO. Like Machu Picchu (Peru) and Angkor What (Cambodia), the National History Park is considered within the surprises of the world.
1982: Ronald Agenor wins a gold medal in men’s tennis singles at the Central American and Caribbean Sports Games La Havana. He captures the hearts of the Island.
1983: Pope John Paul arrives in Haiti for a visit. "Things most alteration here", said John Paul II.
1986: As Jean-Claude consolidated his power, he consistently refused to think constitutional reform. The insurrection against the autocrat Jean Claude Duvalier began…Antigovernment protesters in the capital. Many deaths, injuries and arrests. Seeming end to long Haitian dictatorship with fall of Duvalier regime.
1987: Haiti has one of the America’s rates of HIV infection
1987: The New Constitution reinstated numerous of the liberties annihilated along the Duvalier household. The National Constitution recognizes either French and Creole for lawful languages. A new opposition emerged under Jean-Bertrand Aristide.
1988: Writer Rene Depestre wins the Prix Ranandot. Depestre, a Haitian dissident immediately living in France, was cited his novel Hadriana dans tous mes reves. By the mid-1980s Rene Depestre had convert well known in literacy circles outdoor Haiti.
1990: Ertha Pascall-Trouillot becomes the first black woman elected of head of state in the world.
1990: First multi-party plebiscites. Jean-Bertrand Aristide, a charismatic black governor, was elected premier of Haiti. Aristide is the first democratic president since 1804.He was elected with the most popular aid of anyone Haitian presidential nominee in the history.
1991: Military coup in the country. Raoul Cedras, leader of the coup, emerged as head of the new government. This year apparent the end of eight months of democracy. Under new government, all political parties were liquefied.
1991-1995: Like Equatorial Guinea, Cuba and North Korea, Haiti has one of the most solemn human rights problems in the Third World.
1993: United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Haiti, one of the most densely populated countries in the Americas.
1994: Peaceful occupation by United States forces to restore democratic electoral system. Raoul Cedras and his family went into banish in Panama City. Aristide was restored to power.
1995: In Port-au-Prince, sub-war violence includes assassination of Meireille Durocher Bertin.
1995: In Beijing, the chief of city of the People’s Republic of China, Haiti participated in the UN`s Fourth World Conference above Women
1996:More than 5,000 Haitians had been killed and miles more fled to abroad, United States, Canada, Bahamas and Dominican Republic, since 1991.
1998: Haitian president Renè Garcia Preval arrives in Taipei (Taiwan) for a four-day state visit. He and President Lee will sign a communiqué to reinforce bilateral friendship and cooperation.
1999: Dominican president Leonel Fernandez visit to Haiti as part of a new diplomacy.
2002: In Paris, Dudley Dorival finished 3rd in the 110 hurdles at the World Championships. He becomes the 1st Haitian to win an individual international medal since 1928.Dorival was born in New Jersey, United States, to Haitian parents on 1 September 1975. He in 2000 officially became a citizen of Haiti.
2000: Haiti is one of the thirty poorest countries in the Third World.
2000-2001: The elections were boycotted by the main opposition political parties. Aristide was another elected President. Widespread turbulent in Haiti profess that Aristide’s election victory is fraudulent. Total political censorship exists in national medium.
2004: This year Haiti is celebrating the 200th Anniversary of their National Independence. President Jean-Bertrand Aristide of Haiti flees to Central African Republic emulating anti-government demonstrations. Haiti has one of the most violent clash zones in the Americas. After, UN crews sent to Haiti during civil sub-war.
2006: Rene Preval is sworn in as President of Haiti. Since the peaceful convey of power in February, Haiti is the newest democracy in the Third World.
ECONOMY
Like Bangladesh, Uganda or Tanzania, Haiti is one of the poorest countries on Earth. In 1997, the Haiti’s economy growth rate (real GDP) per capita was U$ 1,300. GDP per capita for Namibia, Botswana and Equatorial Guinea are higher than for Haiti. In the country 4 million people living on fewer than U$2 a daytime. More than 6 million of the Haiti’s population still does no have way to potable water and electricity. For years of dictatorships had left the country’s economy in mars. The country dependent on multinational assistance. Several hundred thousand farm workers migrate every year to Dominican Republic.
In 1997, total exports for the year were U$110 million, while aggregate imports were US$ 486 million. Since 1804, the US market has been the most important export destination for Haiti. Nearly 80 percent of Haiti’s total exports are destined for the United States. Haiti’s exports include sisal, mangoes,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], coffee, cotton, bauxite,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], and sugar. The Island’s imports from the United States include cement, oil, edible, machinery and transport equipment. France has been the second largest exports destination for Haitian productions.
In the quondam, the tourism industry occupied an excellent location in the Haitian economy, merely several political problems have blocked tourism. Haiti was the first country in the Caribbean to subserve tourism in an accelerated fashion. Haiti is a small country with vast mountains, tropical coasts and beautiful historic mansions.
CULTURE
Like Katherine Dunham, Lillian Hellman, W.B. Seabrook, Erik Leonard Ekman, Alejo Carpentier, Selden Rodman, Noel Coward and Angeline Jolie, many people mention that Haiti is the most beautiful country in the Caribbean. Known as the "Magic Land", Haiti is famous for its mores. Certainly, Haiti its culture, its superstitions and its music. The superstitions or voodoo plays a profound role in the lives of many Haitians. The voodoo was introduced into Haiti in the late 16th Century. Haiti is also famous for its painting, and finally for its ruins…for example the Sans Souci Palace, the most famous ruins in the Caribbean. Exactly, this enigmatic palace is considered a Cultural Heritage for Humanity by UNESCO. Originally constructed by black slaves, now Sans Souci is one of Haiti’s main tourist attractions.
Since the late 1940s, Haitian painting, best known as "na?ve art" or "intuitive art", is famous all nigh the World. The most important diagram was Hector Hyppolite. His work made its biggest splash in the United States in the 20th Century. Other talents known internationally include Rigaud Benoit, Castera Bazile, Joseph Jean-Giles and Jean-Baptista Bottlex.Haiti is famous for its traditional sculpture. The best Haitian sculptor is Albert Mangoes.
FAMOUS HAITIAN
Nelust Wyclef Jean (singer/Haitian-American): Original member of 1990s hip hop group The Fugees. Wyclef Jean is probably the most popular Haitian musician of all time. Jean was born in Croix des Bouquets (Haiti) on October 17, 1972. When he was just ten years old, he pushed to the United States. Under leadership of Wyclef Jean and Lauryn Hill, The Fugees had several kicks in the 1990s, including The Score (The Score album sold 6 million copies). Since 1997, Wyclef Jean, as soloist, became renowned on the international music scene. Like composer and maker, Jean collaborated with superstars as Santana, Withney Houston, Mick Jagger,Bono,Tevin Cambpell, Bounty Killer, Eric Benet, Sarah Connor, Claudette Ortiz, Tarkan, Michael Jackson, Youssou N′Dor, Shakira, Olga Ta?on, Carlos Ponce and Julio Voltio. During the final seven years, he has sold more than 10 millions albums international. In 2002, his single Masquerade was a great success.
Since then, Wyclef Jean is a man namely all works with adore for Haiti, one of the World’s poorest countries. Recently, he makes maybe his best work: "Yele Haiti", a foundation which works for the human evolution in the Island. Like Miriam Makeba in South Africa or Bianca Jagger in Nicaragua, Jean loves his roots. In an interview for Magazine, Wyclef Jean argued almost Haitian roots: "I am 100% Haitian. I am arrogant to be Haitian. I still have my Haitian passport. I represent Haiti in anything namely I do. Every pate in the industry knows that I am Haitian…they know what I’m about. I was Haitian forst. Haitian till die!", said Jean.
Discography: Wyclef Jean Present the Carnival Featuring the refugee All-Stars (1997) / The Ecleftic:2 Sides II a Book/ Masquerade (2002) / The Preacher’s (2003)/ Sak Pasé Presents: Creole 101( 2004) /Hips Don’t Lie (with Shakira, 2006).
SPECIAL AWARDS
Gerthie David "The Black Goddess"
In 1975, many Haitian people were shocked to open their weeklies and see photographs of Gerthie David Miss Haiti in El Salvador. On the night of July 19th 1975, in San Salvador,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], Gerthie David, Miss Haiti, was the second black woman to first runner-up in the history of Miss Universe Pageant. After winning the Miss Haiti title, Gerthie went to San Salvador, the capital city of El Salvador, to enter the Miss Universe Contest. The ability was exhausting, very hard, for instance Miss Bolivia, Jackeline Gammarra, great preference, was eradicated. This day,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych], Miss Haiti looks like a black goddess. Her foreign beauty and charming personality are unbelievable! At 1,72m in elevation, she was the best in the evening gown competition, but her speech about the Haitian superstitions swayed thousands of applauses in the 25th Edition of the Contest. Certainly, Miss Haiti convict to the referees Sarah Vaughan (American black singer), Maribel Arrieta (Miss El Salvador 1955 and First runner-up at Miss Universe 1955), Jean Claude Killy (French sportsmen) and Leon Uris(American writer ).
When Bob Barker, the host this pageant, announces the terminal placements, Gerthie was cheered by the all auditorium. Suddenly, her pulse rate beats at thousand per minute… "First runner-up is Miss Haiti!", said Barker. She was one of the most exotic delegates in all history of Miss Universe. In the 1970s, Gerthie David was a model from Port-au Prince and she became a symbol to the Haitian young. Next months, in London, Joelle Apollon, Miss Haiti-World, came in sixth place at Miss World 1975.After sixteen years, Marjorie Vincent, previously Miss Illinois 1991,won the title of Miss USA Pageant. The first Miss USA to originate from the Caribbean. In other words, Marjorie Vincent has Haitian roots. Furthermore, she was the second black woman to win the pageant.
SPORTS
Like in Brazil or Italy, the football is the most popular sport in Haiti. Certainly, the national pastime is the football. A different of the Dominican Republic or Puerto Rico, the Haitian people don’t like the baseball. In the 20th Century, football became the most popular sport in the Island, thanks to such heroes as Sylvio Cator, Joseph Gaetjens and Emmanuel Sanon. In 1974 Haiti qualified for the World Cup in Germany.
Emmanuel Sanon was one of the Haiti’s most popular actors and played at the 1974 World Cup. Sanon made a magnificent contribution to Haitian football for he played in more World Cup qualifiers any other Haitian. He is still quite popular with regional fans. Other phenomenal artist was Joseph Eduard Gaetjens. He characterized both Haiti and the United States. He made FIFA World Cup History: When scored United States beginning goal in the 1950 World Cup against England. Joseph came to the United States in the 1940s to melodrama in the American Soccer League. His pretty play in the Brookhattan Club made in a citizen star. In 1953, he played for Haiti for the first time.
It’s practically impossible to s[link widoczny dla zalogowanych] about Haitian athletes without mentioning Sylvio Cator. He is a legbring an end to ... this sport. Cator won the silver medal in the long jump at 1928 Amsterdam Olympics. Cator returned home to a hero’s welcome. From 1928 to 1930, he was record man in the long jump. Cator was a wondrous jumper and footballer. He also played an important role in popularizing football in the Island (it was the captain of Haitian National Team).
Since then, he is an sample for youth people in Haiti. He died in November 1938, but today the people of Haiti still meditation of him with respect. Many years behind Cator’s death, the National Stadium in Por-au-Prince was renamed in his prestige. Cator was the first of the great Caribbean sportsmen that would come to dominate world track and field.
FAMOUS ATHLETES
Bruny Surin (Canada-Haiti/track field)/ Edrick Floreal (Canada-Haiti/track field)/ Samuel Dalembert ( USA-Haiti/basketball) / Ronald Agenor (USA-Haiti/tennis)/ Sylvio Cator (track and field)/ Yves Jeudy (Box)/ Dieudonne Lamothe (race)/ Ludovic Augustin (shooting)/ Ludovic Volborge (shooting)/ Joseph Eduard Gaetjens (Haiti-USA/football)/ Dudley Dorival (track field)/ Fitz Plantin Andre (football)/ Emmanuel Sanon (football)/ Josmer Altidore (Haitian-American/football).
Dudley Dorival (trail and field): Dudley Dorival was born on 1 September 1975 in Elizabeth (New Jersey, USA). Dorival is the son of Haitian parents and got Haitian nationality equitable in time for the XXVII Summer Olympics Games. Since the 2000 Olympics, Dudley Dorival has contended in international competitions under the banner of Haiti. In Sydney (Australia) Dorival achieved 7th in the 110m hurdles. He became the first Haitian to Olympic finalist since Yves Jeudy (boxer) in 1976. He won the silver medal at the 1994 World Junior Championship, the bronze at the 2001 World Chanpionship and the gold medal at the 2002 Central American and Caribbean Games El Salvador. Dorival is one of the best athlete in the history of Haiti.
FAMOUS WOMEN
Micha?lla Jean (Governor-General of Canada)/ Yvonne Neptune (former Prime Minister)/Claudette Werleigh (Prime Minister 1995-1996)/Lina Blanchet (singer)/ Edwidge Danticat (writer)/ Michelle Bennett Duvalier(First Lady of Haiti 1981-1986)/ Luce Turnier (painter)/ Ertha Pascal-Trouillot (Head of State 1990-1991)/ Marie Casimir (reporter) / Sonia Sekula (Painter) / Marie Chauvet (author)/ Suzanne Comhaire-Sylvain (writer)/ Carmen Brouard (singer)/Dayana Bennett (reporter and actress) / Elie Price (singer)/ Blanche Bosselman (singer)/ Lina Mathon (singer)/ Georgette Moliere (singer)/ Simone Ovide Duvalier (First Lady of Haiti 1957-1981)/ Marleine Bastien (human rights leader)/ Garcelle Beauvais (actress and model)/ Deborah Saint-Phard (track and field)/ Antoinette Gauthier (track and field), Louise Pierre (track and field)/ Rose Gauthier (track and field)
Edwidge Danticat (writer): One of the Caribbean’s most famous writers in the 21st Century. She has written several novels and accumulations of shore stories, including Kri? Kra!, appointed for a National Book Award. Danticat preoccupied international care in 1997 when she jotted perhaps her most famous novel Farming of the Bones, a article about genocide Haitians under the repressive dictatorship of Rafael Leonidas Trujillo.
Garcelle Beauvais (actress): She is the first Haitian actress to star on TV. Although she has lived in the United States for many years, the actress and former vogue prototype Garcelle Beauvais was connate in Saint Marc, a city in Haiti, in 1966. She is perhaps best known for her character as Francesca Monroe on TV’s the Jamie Foxx Show. Like Gerthie David, Joelle Apollon, Evelyn Miot, and Marjorie Vincent, she has the classic loveliness of the Haitian black matron
REFERENCES:
-Bennet Patterson, Carolyn."Haiti: Beyond mountains, more mountains", National Geographic, Washington DC, January 1976
-Bishop,Randa. "Imponentes monumentos haitianos", Americas, Washington DC, enero-febrero 1987
-Cobb,[link widoczny dla zalogowanych],Charles. "Haiti against all odds", National Geographic, November 1987
-Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year 1981, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, 1980
-Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac 2003, Encyclopaedia Britannica, Chicago, 2002
-Guevara Onofre, Alejandro. Enciclopedia Mundototal 1999, Editorial San Marcos, Lima, 1998
-Hunter, Brian. The Statesman’s Year-Book 1991-92, The Macmillan Press, 1991
-Moritz, Charles. Current Biography Yearbook 1972, H.W Wilson Company, NY
-Sconfield, John. "Haiti-West Africa in the West Indies", National Geographic, Washington DC, February 1961
-The International Who’s Who 1996-97, Europe Publications, London, 1996
-The World Almanac 2001, World Almanac Books, New Jersey, 2001
-Tibballs, Geoff. The Olympics′ strangest moments, Robson Books, London, 2004
-Vargas Llosa, Mario. "Haití: la muerte", El Comercio, Lima, 25.4.1994
-Visión. "Imperio del Poder Vitalicio", Santiago de Chile, 17 de marzo de 1967
-Wallechinsky, David. The complete Book of the Olympics, Aurum Press, London, 2004
-Wallechinsky, David-Wallace, Irving. The People’s Almanac2, Batam Book Inc
-WWW.Yotube.com "1975 El Salvador Miss Universe" (video)

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